The lending lease policy , officially titled "A Law to Promote United States Defense" (Pub.L. 77-11, HR 1776, 55, Statin 31, enacted March 11, 1941) was an American program to defeat Germany, Japan and Italy by distributing food, oil and materials between 1941 and August 1945. The aid was given to the United Kingdom, the Republic of China, and then the Soviet Union, Free France, and then the other Allied countries. That includes warships and fighter planes, along with other weapons. The policy was signed into law on March 11, 1941 and ended overnight without prior warning when the war against Japan ended. Help is free for all countries, even though the goods are on the way when the program ends up being charged. Several transport ships were returned to the United States after the war, but most of the items shipped out or were not worthwhile in peacetime. In Reverse Lend Lease, the US was granted a free lease on army and naval bases in Allied territories during the war, as well as local supplies
The program is under the direct control of the White House, with Roosevelt watching closely, aided by Harry Hopkins, W. Averell Harriman, and Edward Stettinius Jr. Roosevelt often sent them to special missions to London and Moscow, where their control over Lease Lending gave them significance. The budget was hidden in the overall military budget, and details were not released until after the war.
As much as $ 50.1 billion (equivalent to $ 681 billion today) involved, or 11% of total US war spending. Overall, $ 31.4 billion (equivalent to $ 427 billion today) went to Britain and its Empire, $ 11.3 billion (equivalent to $ 154 billion today) to the Soviet Union, $ 3.2 billion (equivalent to $ 43.5 billion today) to France, $ 1.6 billion (equivalent to $ 21.7 billion today) to China, and the remaining $ 2.6 billion to other allies. Reversed reverse-loan policies consist of services such as a base lease used by the US, totaling $ 7.8 billion; This $ 6.8 billion comes from the UK and the Commonwealth, mostly of Australia and India. The terms of the agreement state that the material will be used until it is returned or destroyed. In practice very little equipment can be used for use in peacetime. Inventories arriving after the termination date were sold to the UK at a substantial discount of Ã, £ 1,075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States. Canada is not part of Lend Lease. Yet it operates a similar program called Mutual Aid that sent out loans of $ 1 billion and $ 3.4 billion in supplies and services to the UK and other Allies.
This program effectively put an end to the United States' neutrality pretensions and is a defining change of non-interventionist policy, which has dominated US foreign relations since 1931. (See Neutrality of the 1930s Story.)
Video Lend-Lease
​​â € <â €
After the defeat of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only troops who fought against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain has paid for its material with gold as part of a "cash and take" program, as required by the US Neutrality Act of the 1930s, but in 1941 it liquidated so many assets that its cash became exhausted.
During this same period, the US government began to mobilize for total warfare, institutionalizing the first peaceful draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $ 2 billion to $ 10 billion). Meanwhile, as Britain began to lack money, weapons and other equipment, Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt for American aid. Sympathizing with British suffering but hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Act, which prohibits arms sales on credit or lends money to belligerent countries, Roosevelt has finally emerged with the idea of ​​"lending-rent." As one Roosevelt biographer wrote: "If there are no practical alternatives, then there is no good morale: Britain and the Commonwealth bring war to all civilizations, and the majority of Americans, leading the final election by them, the president, want to help them. "As the President himself says," There is no excuse with the firebomb. "
In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain, the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States. The purpose of the British Technical and Scientific Mission is to acquire industrial resources to exploit the military potential of research and development completed by the British until the beginning of World War II, but the British themselves can not exploit because of direct war production requirements. The joint technologies include magnetron cavities (key technologies at the time for highly effective radars, the American historian James Phinney Baxter III was later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores"), designs for VT fuel, details of Frank Whittle Jet engines and Frisch-Peierls memorandum that explains the feasibility of an atomic bomb. Although this can be considered the most significant, many other items are also transported, including designs for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic guns, submarine detection devices, self-sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives.
During December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the United States would be "Arsenal Democracy" and proposed selling ammunition to Britain and Canada. Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning that it would result in US involvement with what most Americans consider to be a basically European conflict. In time, opinions shifted as more and more Americans began to consider the advantages of funding the British war against Germany, while remaining free of the hostilities themselves. The propaganda shows the destruction of British cities during The Blitz, as well as Germany's popular portrayal of a savage also evokes public opinion to the Allies, especially after France's defeat.
After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that Allied support change had to be gradual, especially since the German American people were the largest ethnicity in America at the time. Initially, American policy was to help the UK but not to go to war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54 percent of Americans supported the provision of assistance to the UK without Lend-Lease qualifications. Further 15 percent support qualifications such as: "If it does not lead us into war," or "If England can give us security for what we give them." Only 22 percent actually oppose the President's proposal. When the polls were asked for their party affiliation, opinion polls showed a political divide: 69 percent of the Democrats actually supported Lend-Lease, while only 38 percent of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one polling spokesman also noted that, "about twice as many Republicans" gave "qualified answers as... Democrats."
The opposition to the Lending and Buying Draft is the strongest among Republicans in Congress, who fear it will be "the longest single step the country takes on direct involvement in the war abroad." When the House finally voted on February 9, 1941, the number of votes from 260 to 165 was largely in line with the party. Democrats voted 238 to 25 and supported Republicans 24 and 135 against.
The vote in the Senate, which took place a month later, revealed the same partisan differences. 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye" with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) who voted "no." In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "do not know" while 10 Republican Senate (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.
President Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease bill into law on March 11, 1941. It allowed him to "sell, transfer property to, swap, rent, lend or dispose of it to such a government [whose defense was deemed important by the President of defense United States] defense articles of any kind. "In April, the policy was extended to China, and in October to the Soviet Union. Roosevelt approved a $ 1 billion aid to Lend-Lease to Britain in late October 1941.
It follows the 1940 Crusader Agreement, in which 50 US Navy destroyers were diverted to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also grants basic US rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free, allowing British military assets to be re-deployed.
After the United States entered the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend-Lease spending. In the spring of 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend-Lease program by voting 334 to 21. The Senate passed it with a vote of 63 to 1.
Maps Lend-Lease
Administration
President Roosevelt founded the Lend-Lease Administration Office during 1941, appointing steel executive Edward R. Stettinius as head. During September 1943, he was promoted to Vice Foreign Minister, and Leo Crowley became director of the Overseas Economic Administration who was given responsibility for Lend-Lease.
Lending assistance to the Soviet Union was managed nominally by Stettinius. The Roosevelt Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were genuinely sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional help". Some Americans objected to Soviet assistance until 1943.
This program starts over after VE Day. During April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and during August 1945, after Japan surrendered, the program was over.
Scale
The value of material provided by the US to other cognate countries
Significance
Lend-Lease helps British troops and other allies win the war. Even after US forces in Europe and the Pacific began to reach full strength during 1943-1944, Lend-Lease went on. Most of the remaining allies are largely self-sufficient in front-line equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) at present, but Lend-Lease provides useful supplements in this category, however, and Lent-Lease logistics supplies (including motor vehicles and trains ) equipment) very helpful.
Much help can be better understood when considering the economic distortions caused by war. Most warring parties reduce non-essential production, concentrating on producing weapons. This shortage of required related products is inevitably required by the military or as part of a military industrial complex. For example, the Soviet Union relied heavily on rail transport, but the war practically ended the production of rail equipment. Only 446 locomotives were produced during the war, with only 92 built between 1942 and 1945. In total, 92.7% of wartime railway equipment production by the Soviet Union was supplied by Lend-Lease, including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 trains adding pre-war stocks of at least 20,000 locomotives and half a million trains.
In addition, much of the Soviet military logistical aid is provided by hundreds of thousands of US-made trucks. Indeed, in 1945, nearly a third of the strength of the Red Army trucks was built in the US. Trucks like the Dodge Ã,¾ ton and Studebaker 2Ã,½ tons are easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front. American delivery of telephone, aluminum, ration and ration cans is also very important.
Lend-Lease also supplies a large number of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 13% of Soviet warplane production. And while most of the tank units are Soviet-made models, some 7,000 Lend-Lease tanks are deployed by the Red Army, or 8% of war time production.
According to Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend-Lease has an important role in winning the war:
Overall the following conclusions can be drawn: that without Western delivery under the Lend-Lease of the Soviet Union not only will not be able to win the Great Patriotic War, it will not be able to even resist the German invaders, because it alone can not produce sufficient quantities of weapons and equipment military or an adequate supply of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities are well aware of this dependence on Lend-Lease. Thus Stalin told Harry Hopkins [the FDR envoy to Moscow in July 1941] that the US could not match the German forces as European colonizers and their resources.
Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commander and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, spoke directly to the importance of borrowing in his memoirs:
I would like to express my honest opinion about Stalin's view of whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union can overcome Nazi Germany and survive the war without help from the United States and Britain. First, I want to tell you about some of the statements made by Stalin and repeated several times when we "discuss freely" among ourselves. He stated frankly that if the United States did not help us, we would not win the war. If we had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we would not be able to resist the German pressure, and we would lose the war. No one has ever discussed this matter officially, and I do not think Stalin left any written proof of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversation with me he notes that this is the real situation. He never made a special point to hold talks on this issue, but when we engaged in some kind of casual conversation, discussing international questions of the past and present, and when we will return to the subject of the road we have taken during the war, that is what he said. When I listen to his comments, I completely agree with him, and today I am even more than that.
Joseph Stalin, during the Tehran Conference during 1943, publicly acknowledged the importance of American efforts during dinner at the conference: "Without American production, the United Nations [Allied] can never win the war."
In a secret interview with wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov was quoted as saying:
Today [1963] some say that the Allies are not really helping us... But listen, we can not deny that Americans are sending us material without which we can not equip our troops that are kept in reserve or can continue the war.
Return items after the war
Roosevelt, who wanted to secure public approval for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to one neighbor lending another garden hose to extinguish the fire at his home. "What am I doing in a crisis like that?" The President asked at a press conference. "I do not say... 'Neighbors, my garden hose costs $ 15; you have to pay $ 15 for it'... I do not want $ 15 - I want my garden hose back after the fire is over." To which Senator Robert Taft (R-Ohio), replied: "Borrowing war equipment is as good as borrowing gum - you certainly do not want the same candy back."
In practice, very little is returned except for some unarmed carrier vessels. The advantages of military equipment are of no value in peacetime. The Lend-Lease Agreement with 30 countries is provided for non-payment of money or returned goods, but in "collective action directed at the creation of an internationalized economic order liberalized in the postwar world." It is the US, will be "paid" when the recipients combat the common enemy and join the world trade and diplomatic institutions, such as the United Nations.
US Shipping to USSR
US Deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:
- "Pre-Borrowing" June 22, 1941 to September 30, 1941 (paid for gold and other minerals)
- the first protocol period from 1 October 1941 to 30 June 1942 (signed 7 October 1941), this inventory will be produced and delivered by the UK with US credit financing.
- the second protocol period from 1 July 1942 to 30 June 1943 (signed 6 October 1942)
- the third protocol period from 1 July 1943 to 30 June 1944 (signed 19 October 1943)
- the fourth protocol period from 1 July 1944, (signed 17 April 1945), officially ended May 12, 1945 but the dispatch continued during the war with Japan (entered into the Soviet Union on August 8, 1945) under "Milepost" 1945 when Japan surrendered. On September 20, 1945 all the Rent-Lease to the Soviet Union was stopped.
Deliveries are made through Arctic Konvoy, Persian Corridor, and Pacific Route.
The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route to lend aid to the Soviet Union, although it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing through occupied Norway. About 3,964,000 tonnes of goods shipped via Arctic routes; 7% were lost, while 93% arrived safely. This constituted about 23% of total aid to the Soviet Union during the war.
The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. After that saw a share of 4.160,000 tonnes of goods, 27% of the total.
The Pacific route opened in August 1941, but was influenced by the onset of hostilities between Japan and the United States; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the Soviet Union observed strict neutrality with each other, only non-military goods could be transported. Nevertheless, about 8,244,000 tonnes of goods went by this route, 50% of the total.
In total, US shipments through Lend-Lease amount to $ 11 billion in materials: more than 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386 of which are M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans); 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which are Bell P-39 Airacobras) and 1.75 million tons of food.
About 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies and food were shipped from the western hemisphere to the Soviet Union, 94% from the US. By comparison, a total of 22 million tonnes landed in Europe to supply American troops from January 1942 to May 1945. It is estimated that US shipments to the Soviet Union through the Persian Corridor alone are sufficient, by US Army standards, to retain sixty division battles on the line.
The United States was sent to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941 to May 31, 1945 as follows: 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 official vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (petrol and oil) or 57.8 percent fueled high-octane flight, 4,478,116 tons of foodstuff (canned meat, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 Diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tankers and 35 heavy-duty cars. Armaments provided (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, various explosives) accounted for 53 percent of total domestic production. One of the many specialties is a physically lifted tire plant from the Ford Company River Rouge Plant and transferred to the Soviet Union. The value of money 1947 of inventories and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.
English Delivery to Soviet Union
In June 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the first British aid convoy set out along the dangerous Arctic sea route to Murmansk, arriving in September. It carries 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and no wing pilots. 151 to provide air defense directly from the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk known as the Arctic convoy, ships that returned with the gold used by the USSR to pay the US.
By the end of 1941, the initial delivery of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5% of the total Soviet tank production, but more than 25% of medium and heavy tanks were produced for the Red Army. The British tanks first saw action with an Independent Tank Battalion 138 at the Volga Reservoir on November 20, 1941. The Lend-Lease tank comprised 30 to 40 percent of the heavy and medium-sized tanks before Moscow in early December 1941.
A significant number of Churchill tanks, Matilda, and British Valentine were sent to the Soviet Union.
Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain was sent to the Soviet Union:
- 3,000 Hurricanes
- 4,000 other aircraft
- 27 naval ships
- 5,218 tanks (including 1,380 Valentines from Canada)
- 5,000 anti-tank weapon
- 4.020 ambulances and trucks
- 323 truck engines
- 1.212 Universal Carriers and Loyd Carriers (with 1,348 other from Canada)
- 1,721 motorcycles
- for $ 1.15bn aircraft engine
- 1,474 sets of radar
- 4,338 radio sets
- 600 naval radar and sonar sets
- Hundreds of naval guns
- 15 million pairs of boots
A total of 4 million tons of war materials including food and medicine are delivered. The ammunition reached  £ 308 million (excluding supplied naval ammunition), its food and raw materials totaled Ã,  £ 120 million in 1946. In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement on 27 June 1942, military aid sent from England to the Soviet Union during the war was completely free of charge.
Reverse Loans-rent
Reverse Lend-lease is the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $ 8 billion (equivalent to $ 124 billion today) worth of war material given to US troops by its allies, 90% of this amount comes from the United Kingdom. The reciprocal contributions include the Austin K2/Y military ambulance, the British aviation plane used in the B-17 Flying Fortresses, the Canadian-run Fairmile used in anti-submarine warfare, mosquito-proof reconnaissance and Indian petroleum products. Australia and New Zealand supply most of the food to US troops in the South Pacific. Though small in comparison, loans lent from the Soviets include 300,000 tons of chromium and 32,000 tons of manganese ore, as well as wood, gold and platinum.
In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said about the participation of the Allies in Reverse Loans-Rent:
... expenditures made by the British Commonwealth for back loan assistance granted to the United States, and the expansion of this program to include the export of ingredients and groceries to the accounts of United States agencies of the United States. The British empire and colonies, emphasizing the contribution that the British Commonwealth has made to the United States' defense while taking up the scene on the battlefield. This is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to gather their resources with ours so that the weapons they need may be in the hands of the soldiers - whatever may be his nationality - which at the right time can use them most effectively to defeat our common enemy.
In April 1944 the Congress was briefed by Overseas Economic Administrator Leo T Crowley;
Just as the RAF operation against Germany and the coast of invasion would not have been possible on their current scale without lending money so the Eighth and Ninth United States air force missions of the British mission would not be possible without a reverse lend-lease. Our Citadel and Liberator take off from a giant airbase built, equipped and serviced under a reverse loan at a cost of hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of our pilots are flying Spitfires built in the UK, many of which fly American warplanes backed by British Rolls Royce Merlin engines, submitted to us by the UK. And much of the supply needed by our Air Force was obtained for us at no charge with reverse back loan. Even our armed forces in the UK, both land and air, accept as a reverse borrowed loan, without our payment, one-third of all equipment and equipment they need today, Britain provides 90% of their medical supplies and despite the shortage of food, 20% of their food.
In 1945-46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend-Lease, although in 1942-43 Lend-Lease's value to New Zealand was much higher than that of Reciprocal Aid. The UK also provides extensive material assistance to American troops stationed in Europe, such as USAAF supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighters.
Cooperation built with Canada during the war was a mix of elements in which air and road routes to Alaska, the Canol project, and CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most expensive in terms of business and funding.
... The total defense and service materials Canada receives through a borrowing-loan line amounts to approximately $ 419,500,000.
... Some ideas about the scope of economic collaboration can be derived from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 to 1945 Canada, on its part, supplemented the United States with $ 1,000,000,000 to $ 1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.
... Although most joint defense building facilities, except the Alaska Highway and Canol projects, have been undertaken by Canada, most of the original costs are borne by the United States. The agreement is that all temporary construction for the use of US forces and all permanent construction required by US forces outside Canada's terms will be paid by the United States, and that the cost of all other constructs of permanent value will be met by Canada. While it is not entirely logical that Canada should pay for any construction deemed unnecessary by the Government of Canada or that is not in accordance with Canadian requirements, the consideration of national self-respect and sovereignty causes the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.
... The total amount Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement was approximately $ 76.8 million, which was approximately $ 13.87 million lower than the US spent on the facility.
Canadian assistance to English
Canada has its own loaned version for the UK. Canada awarded $ 3.5 billion in British prizes during the war, plus an interest-free loan of $ 1 billion; The British used the money to buy Canadian food and war equipment. Canada also lent $ 1.2 billion in the long run to Britain shortly after the war; this loan was fully paid at the end of 2006.
(RCAF Station Gander) located at Gander International Airport, built in 1936 in Newfoundland, was hired by the British to Canada for 99 years due to its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber to England. Rent became redundant when Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province in 1949.
Most American Loan Assistance consists of US purchased inventory, but Roosevelt allows Lend-Lease to purchase supplies from Canada, to be shipped to Britain, China and the Soviet Union.
Reissue
Congress does not authorize the provision of supplies sent after the cutoff date, so the US charged them, usually at a 90% discount. A large number of items not shipped were in the UK or on the way when Lend-Lease was discontinued on September 2, 1945. Britain wanted to keep some of this equipment in the immediate post-war period. In 1946, the postwar Anglo-American loan owed more to Britain for US Lent-Lease items retained for sale to the UK at 10% of their face value, providing an initial loan of Ã, Â £ 1.075 billion for the Lend- Lease of postwar loans. Payments will be extended to more than 50 annual payments, beginning in 1951 and with five years of deferred payment, at 2% interest. The last payment of $ 83.3 million (Â £ 42.5 million), due on December 31, 2006 (payment has been deferred in the permitted five years and for the sixth year is not allowed), made on December 29, 2006 (last business day of year). After this last payment, the British Economic Secretary to the Treasury officially thanked the US for its wartime support.
Delinquent payments from Lend-Lease by the United Kingdom are made in the form of some valuable technologies, including those related to radar, sonar, jet engines, antitank weapons, rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection, self-sealing fuel tanks, and materials plastic explosives as well as British contributions to the Manhattan Project. Many of them were moved by the Tizard Mission. The official historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James Phinney Baxter III, wrote: "When the Tizard Mission members brought a magnetron cavity to America in 1940, they brought the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores."
While repayment of interest-free loans is required after the end of the war under the law, in practice the US does not expect to be paid by the Soviet Union after the war. The US received $ 2 Million in the Revolving Loans of the Soviet Union. These are mostly landing, servicing, and refueling of transport planes; some industrial machinery and rare minerals are shipped to the US. The US asked for $ 1.3 billion at the time of the cessation of hostilities to pay off debts, but only offered $ 170 million by the Soviet Union. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the US accepted an offer from the Soviet Union to pay $ 722 million in relation to grain shipments from the US, with the remainder abolished. During the war, the Soviet Union provided an unknown amount of unknown minerals to the US Treasury as a form of unpaid payment from Lend-Lease. It was approved prior to the signing of the first protocol on October 1, 1941 and the extension of the credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by Germany. In May 1942, HMS Edinburgh was drowned while carrying 4.5 tons of Soviet gold aimed at US Treasury. The gold was rescued in 1981 and 1986. In June 1942, SS Port Nicholson sank en route from Halifax, Canada to New York, allegedly with Soviet platinum, gold, and industrial diamonds on board; The wreck was discovered in 2008. However, none of these cargoes are rescued, and no documentation of the treasure has been produced.
See also
- ALSIB
- Anglo-American Loans
- The World War II arctic convoy
- Arms Export Control Law
- Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid, from Canada
- Banff sloop class
- The Battle of the Atlantic
- Cash and carry (World War II)
- Home for the UK
- Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
- Military production during World War II
- Northwest Staging Route
- Operation Cedar
- Persian Corridor
- Hula Project
- Tizard Mission
References
Quote
Bibliography
External links
- Lend-Lease Shipping, World War II (Washington: Department of War, 1946)
- Borrow to the Soviet Union
- The Voice of Russia at the Allied and Lend-Lease Museum , Moscow
- New Zealand war history Official Borrowing, from Economic War
- New Zealand's official war history; termination of Mutual Aid from 21 December 1945, from War Economy
- Allied and Lend-Lease Museum , Moscow
- "Reverse Lend-Lease" an article 1944 Flights reported a speech by President Roosevelt
- Lend rental routes - maps and sum sum of LLs to USSR
Source of the article : Wikipedia
0 Comments